Karl Marx
Marx's revolutionary ideas ignited discussions in crucial areas such as philosophy, theology, history, politics, and economics, significantly contributing to the development of sociology as an academic discipline.
Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, numerous political movements, heavily inspired by his thoughts, transformed the landscape through revolutions and reforms. His work influenced the formation of labour unions, labour parties, and social democratic organisations while also fuelling revolutionary movements via communist parties across Europe and beyond. Today, scholars regard Marx's three-volume Das Kapital as one of the best resources for analysing and understanding the essential features of capitalism, no matter how different its contemporary manifestations may be. This book has been pronounced dead or obsolete many times, but it keeps bouncing back, with the latest recovery in interest and soaring sales volume prompting Time Magazine to declare: "He's back!”
Born into a middle-class - what he termed bourgeois - German family on 5 May 1818, Marx never anticipated achieving such broad recognition. His father, Heinrich, of Jewish descent, converted to Christianity, leading to Marx's baptism as a Lutheran in 1824. Even at a young age, Marx studied the Bible, and he wrote a commentary on the Gospel of John while still only 17 before delving into the works of Hegel, Schelling, and Kant, which would lead him to question the existence of organised religion.
Marx is commonly viewed as a critic of religion, describing religion as “the opium of the people,” a widely cited and frequently misunderstood quote. Many dictatorial regimes have historically misappropriated this saying to justify a violent crackdown on religion in their countries. However, it is essential to stress that Marx never stated this as a standalone sentence. The full quote reads very differently from the sentence fragment usually cited: "Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions; it is the opium of the people."
For Marx, religious suffering can signify genuine suffering. Religion embodies the sigh, heart, and soul in a world devoid of warmth and spirit. However, it also serves as a protest against that very suffering. Rather than simply helping one cope with a deteriorating world or accepting painful realities, religion challenges the notion that such afflictions should be endured. This suggests a hint - though subtle - of the ambivalence surrounding religion, as Marx's opium metaphor carries a complexity that may not be immediately apparent.
In addition to its negative connotations, it also holds potential positive meanings. Marx views religion as a significant moral force, particularly for the marginalised and oppressed. It is more than just a cluster of ideas used by the powerful to validate social hierarchies; for instance, hymns that imply a "King in Heaven" justify the existence of kings on earth. To Marx, religion serves as a form of protest in the hands of the poor and oppressed. It voices grievances about real suffering, contrasting with the illusionary pain stemming from fear of divine punishment or inherited sin from past lives.
In our contemporary view, opium is often linked to drugs, addiction, organised crime, and ruined lives. However, in 19th century Europe, the narrative was quite different. Opium was viewed as a valuable, effective, and inexpensive remedy, particularly for the impoverished who struggled to access medical care. Even into the early 20th century, doctors employed opium to alleviate melancholy and various other illnesses. As Alexander Vvedensky, the Russian Orthodox theologian, remarked in 1925, opium transcends being just a drug that numbs the senses; it serves as a medicine that "reduces pain in life and, from this point of view, opium is for us a treasure that keeps on giving, drop by drop."
Simultaneously, opium was perceived as a problem. It became a focal point of debate and parliamentary inquiries in England, receiving acclaim and criticism. Artists and poets envisioned utopian ideals around it, while society increasingly stigmatised it as a catalyst for addiction and disease.
Furthermore, the British Empire imposed opium on China, draining its wealth and enriching itself through trade. Views on opium varied greatly, it was seen as both a valuable medicine and a harmful vice. Not to forget, Marx himself used opium regularly. He consumed it to deal with the many illnesses that were produced by obsessive overwork, lack of sleep, chain-smoking, and severe toothache.
Opium serves as a complex metaphor; this is why Marx associated it with religion. Like opium, religion offers hope and can be a remedy for suffering, representing a sign of a better world. However, it also reflects a disordered reality and can cause harm itself.
Today, Marx is often subjected to any number of lazy slurs. A common tactic to dismiss discussions about him is to cite the Stalin show trials, Soviet gulags, and the Khmer Rouge's Year Zero. Nonetheless, Marx consistently criticised how his ideas were interpreted and profoundly disdained any movement labelled "Marxist." He said, "If anything is certain, it is that I myself am not a Marxist."
Marx's legacy is marked by a stark division of opinion. While some view him as a disruptive force, others draw parallels between him and the Hebrew prophets, both advocating for justice for the disadvantaged and vehemently criticising the indifferent wealthy.
